Sports Tourism and the Cévennes National Park: The Transmodern Choice

The aim of this article is to examine and analyze how stakeholders in a protected area, such as the Cévennes National Park (PNC), act in response to the current and conflicting goals of economic growth and ecosystem conservation. From a tourism-and-sports perspective, we have attempted, in the first part, to illustrate their working methods and how these reveal a transmodern cultural form (Corneloup, 2011). A culture in which, through innovation and solidarity, sustainable development and collective well-being are the primary objectives. We also analyze how this transmodernity has taken shape in the region. We will see that it is organized around a knowledge economy based on information sharing and decision-making through consensus and debate, and that it represents the means by which stakeholders have sought to make the region innovative and attractive.

Living in the Pays Viganais community of municipalities can be seen as a privilege for those who love nature and the great outdoors. Indeed, Le Vigan and its neighboring towns are part of the Cévennes National Park (PNC), the only French national park with settlements at its heart. This offers visitors a wealth of opportunities for outdoor activities. We decided to examine these activities with the aim of understanding the current dynamics of this region. These outdoor activities are highly diverse and varied; they can differ in terms of their environments (aquatic, terrestrial, aerial, etc.), their levels of risk, or their technical complexity. These differences among outdoor activities are meaningful and represent distinct cultural forms. That is to say, each of the dimensions (equipment, technology, physical techniques, objectives, etc.) associated with the practice reveals social (Marc and Michaud, 1981) and cultural characteristics linked to a specific era and geographical space.

Initially, outdoor physical activities developed around traditional games (Mounet, 2004), the rules and customs of which varied depending on where they were played. They are classified as part of traditional culture because enjoyment and recreation were the primary focus. However, these practices have gradually become more widespread, becoming more structured and institutionalized since the late 20th century. The marking of trails, as well as the opening of clubs and sports service providers, has made these activities accessible to a new audience. According to Corneloup (2011), this period in history corresponds to modernity because it involved developing new activities at the national level in order to master nature, dominate it, and encourage comparisons and thus competition. But this “sportification” (Perelman, 2010) of these practices and this democratization brought with it overuse of natural areas (Mounet, 2004). Indeed, the arrival of a mass population drives experts, seeking tranquility, to abandon their usual spots and head toward new “secret spots,” which will themselves eventually be discovered by the masses (Mounet, 2004). This phenomenon of overcrowding in nature is only amplified by postmodern culture, where practitioners utilize the entire environment (land, water, air) through new forms of activities such as paragliding or surfing (Corneloup, 2011).

In addition, sports tourism has grown, making natural areas a fundamental resource for tourism providers (Mounet, 1997). Nature has thus quickly become a coveted space where conflicts of interest can arise between athletes, tourism providers, hunters, and others. But beyond conflicts among humans, this increased visitor traffic causes damage and harm to biodiversity as a whole. This raises questions: what values and forms of tourism would be more in line with ecological concerns? How can we limit the impact of nature-based sports tourism in light of global warming? How should we manage our territories?

In this context, the French government has established national parks to protect certain areas rich in biodiversity. This national park status entails a framework—a set of guidelines—that applies to all stakeholders within the territory. National parks consist of a “core” area and a “buffer zone.” The core of the park is monitored with great vigilance, and human activities there are strictly regulated for conservation purposes, while the peripheral zone (“buffer zone”) is monitored with fewer restrictions but follows the approach established by the public agency and the “core” zone. Two distinct policies can then be implemented, aiming to maximize the dual objectives of biodiversity conservation and rural development (Debril, 2014). We will analyze this operational model from the perspective of tourism and sports.

It is important to note that Corneloup (2011) identifies this period as the emergence of the transmodern cultural form. He defines it as a culture developing around climate issues and collective well-being. According to him, the growth objectives of the modern and postmodern systems only exacerbate vulnerabilities on ecological, economic, energy, social, and health levels. The transmodern lifestyle, proposed by the public, offers an alternative with a return to a long-term perspective where nature once again becomes a central focus. However, it is important to understand that this is not a step backward; this lifestyle seeks to draw inspiration from and go beyond modernity to reach a higher level of consciousness and political intelligence (Corneloup and Mao, 2010), thereby overcoming the constraints of the existing system. Regarding outdoor activities, this approach would generate a new dynamic (Corneloup and Mao, 2010) through conceptual changes and innovations aimed at fostering creativity and rethinking how we experience physical sensations and recreational time. It is therefore worth exploring how providers of outdoor activities have adapted to the rules set by national parks, and how these activities hold meaning in relation to the associated cultural forms.

To this end, our study focused on the Pays Viganais Community of Municipalities (CCPV), which is part of the PNC, straddling both its core and its peripheral zone. The population of this territory, governed by the various policies of the PNC as well as those of the CCPV, appears to have embraced the principles of transmodernity through a sustainable lifestyle and the fostering of solidarity. This article provides an opportunity to better understand the ins and outs of this cultural phenomenon. To do so, we will first examine the influence of transmodernity on the forms of sports tourism present in this region. Then, the second part will help us understand how these ecological and societal transformations have emerged in this region.

Methodology

This research is based on qualitative data from six semi-structured interviews, each lasting approximately 40 minutes. These interviews were conducted with professionals in the fields of sports tourism and national parks, event organizers, and a local elected official, as the objective was to engage not only with those who shape sports activities (political and regional entities) but also with those who offer them to customers (service providers). These interviews focused on three main themes: recreational livability, sustainable development, and the relationship between the interviewee and the region. This allowed us to understand the social behaviors and mental states (Blanchet, 1987) of our subjects, but above all the concept of form (Corneloup and Mao, 2010), which aims to grasp the principles that emerge in the shaping of a culture and through which the material and immaterial relationship to social practice is constructed. Similarly, these interviews allowed us to identify and compare the tourism and sports offerings available in this region. Finally, it was also essential to analyze the various organizational structures of the Pays Viganais in order to better understand how this transmodern cultural form is structured. Through these methodological tools, we were able to capture a reality and attempted to interpret it.

The Transmodern Influence on Sports Tourism in the PNC

Transmodernity is “based, on the one hand, on the blending of fields of practice (sports, recreation, tourism, art, spirituality, etc.) and values; and, on the other hand, on an ecological way of life” (Kirschner, 2017: 14). In this section, we will show how this can be reflected within our research area. First, it is important to revisit the context of this study, namely the exceptional nature of this preserved region. Its wild, unspoiled character—which offers an escape—and its rich biodiversity were highlighted by our interviewees, most of whom made a conscious life choice by moving to the Cévennes. This choice prioritizes a “return to nature” (Faes, 2002) in order to achieve a better quality of life (Ateljevic, 2013). As a result, they have fled urban life and its technologies to reconnect with nature and its elements.

"If you love outdoor sports—mountain biking, road cycling, trail running, and hiking—this place is absolutely stunning, nestled between the Cirque de Navacelles and the entire Aigoual massif Aigoual massif: it’s a little paradise ! And best of all, you can enjoy it all year round. […]

"That's exactly the moment when you want to be alone with nature and […] for philosophical reasons, you don't want to go running with your phone."

Pierre, sports event organizer and president of the cycling club.

We can thus observe the abandonment of the human/object dichotomy promoted by modernity and postmodernity, in favor of a resurgence of the human/nature dichotomy (Acosta, 2012) championed by the transmodern movement. This movement places nature back at the center of our considerations. However, it does not reject everything that has been done in the past and attempts, for example, to retain and adopt the best of the technological revolution (Dussel and Ibarra-Colado, 2006) while eliminating its anti-ecological aspects. This principle is reflected in the use of electric-assist bicycles (EABs) by one of the interviewed tourism providers, who emphasizes that EABs make the activity more accessible.

Nevertheless, if we look directly at the offerings of the sports service providers surveyed (one offers multi-day excursions with lodging in rural guesthouses along country trails accompanied by a donkey, and the other, as mentioned earlier, sells e-bike tours to explore the surrounding landscapes using guidebooks), we observe that they are meaningful and are not limited to drawing inspiration from the best of what has been done in the past. On the contrary, it seems that they propose an innovative way of life through “recreational habitability” (Corneloup et al., 2014). This refers to the way in which residents—and in our case, sports tourism stakeholders—rethink their relationship with nature to make it identity-forming (shaping the territory), sustainable (respect for the environment), and attractive for recreational use (Corneloup et al., 2014). This concept, as a key pillar of transmodern influence, can take two different forms: cultural hybridization and the transcultural nature of outdoor sports.

Cultural blending reflects the fact that the competitive and performance-oriented aspects of outdoor sports are no longer the only elements associated with nature. On the contrary, this aspect has been replaced by a recreational dimension and accessibility for all (Corneloup, 2011), allowing the various cultural dimensions of these activities to express themselves, such as music, dance, art, and ecological observation… To illustrate our point, we can state that, for one of the service providers, the donkey offers three advantages: it allows customers to unload their luggage, it can carry children when they are tired, and it adds to the enjoyment of the excursions through its presence. Thus, the donkey facilitates the activity, sparks curiosity, and entertains participants, while the walking component allows cultural dimensions (ecological observation, music, etc.) to be expressed.

Second, the electric assistance on mountain bikes makes it possible to expand the potential customer base to include people who are less athletic and/or not experts. The guidebooks, for their part, offer a historical and cultural perspective. We thus see the hallmarks of transmodernity and cultural hybridity: accessibility for all and an openness to cultural and recreational dimensions (see Table 1).

Furthermore, the transcultural aspect of outdoor sports (Corneloup and Mao, 2010) refers to the connections and bridges created between activities and cultures in order to revitalize them from an innovative, recreational, and sustainable perspective. This has allowed us to observe two key elements.

The two service providers interviewed, together with the PNC, helped rehabilitate the rural trails. This initiative had two main outcomes: it allowed them to shape and take greater ownership of this territory, but above all, it created a link between traditional culture and transmodern culture. Indeed, these trails, traditionally used for transporting livestock or goods, are now used for tourism and sports.

The second factor is the revitalization of the mountain biking sector through technological innovation (electric batteries). As a result, the focus on performance takes a back seat, making way for the exceptional beauty of nature and the joy of exploring it (see Table 1).

Through this shaping—and thus this appropriation—of nature, the PNC and its service providers aim to protect this territory, one of the cornerstones of transmodernity. In this regard, the PNC is doing everything in its power to promote a responsible and sustainable approach for future generations. The regulatory framework established by the government regarding national parks thus requires the population living within the park to take ecological considerations into account. This means that the scope for initiative among these residents is limited, and that the PNC holds the authority to protect this area.

“That said, I am well aware that there are also local stakeholders who often criticize us for imposing restrictions on general activities within the park itself, and not just on the trails or trails […]. But once again, since the region is seeking ecological development through the forest, we must strive for the right balance and, therefore, forest harvesting in in the fall seems less problematic to us in terms of its impact on species.”

Xavier, PNC executive

We can also highlight the department’s initiative to establish the “Gard pleine nature” label, which promotes ecological values at large-scale sporting events such as the “Gard Trail Challenge,” which features more than a dozen race dates. A phenomenon of transition (Corneloup, 2011) can be observed with the establishment of an eco-sports and organic lifestyle movement. Indeed, it can be observed that these competitions, which are part of modern and postmodern culture, are gradually becoming “transmodern” with the internal development of an ecological consciousness, while remaining consistent with the consumption patterns of the local population.

“We’ve been pioneers in this area because the event has been around for 16 years, and we’ve been we’ve been offering organic products at our aid stations […] We’re not going to buy synthetic T-shirts made in China. We’d rather give runners a bottle of local apple juice or a jar of jam. Our podium prizes are mostly local products to promote the region and minimize unnecessary transport over thousands of miles.”

Pierre, sports event organizer and president of the cycling club.

This approach can be described as “innovativeness” (Alban and Hubert, 2013), as it reflects the ability to develop and promote local resources in order to reverse a negative trend. It helps revitalize the local economy, is environmentally friendly, and sets the event apart from other competitions. This also demonstrates that environmental concerns have been fully embraced by the stakeholders and that initiatives are not merely confined to the National Park but have become a collective effort in which everyone is involved. One of the service providers interviewed, for example, has worked to become completely energy self-sufficient. For electricity, they installed solar panels; they also raise sheep and tend their vegetable garden for food.

In addition, these initiatives are accompanied by responsible communication; sports service providers aim to educate tourists in the Cévennes about environmental issues. For one of them, it is even “a duty.” Indeed, his business represents a return to a long-term perspective, in which greater attention is paid to the environment. This focus raises questions that he feels it is necessary to address.

“Everyone who comes through here is made aware of all this; we give them informational materials about the environment, we prepare them for what they’re going to see, and we also make them aware of what they’re eating…”

Antoine, the tour operator offering donkey treks.

It is the concept of naturalness (Corneloup and Mao, 2010) that emerges from these actions, as nature is the defining feature of these practices, and every effort is made to enhance the immersive experience.

Beyond nature conservation and protection, Luyckx (1999), one of the first researchers to focus on transmodernity, emphasizes the preservation of a balance between flora and fauna. This idea can be put into practice through the regulation of hunting. Indeed, the PNC has established, in cooperation with hunters, an association to oversee this activity. This oversight is essential because there is a requirement to hunt (during certain periods) within the heart of the PNC to prevent animals, particularly deer, from damaging the floral diversity.

Based on the various initiatives described, we have thus been able to observe that the stakeholders seek not only to shape and make the territory their own, but also to make it attractive by promoting a certain quality of life based on sharing and an eco-friendly lifestyle. All these codes and values align with the transmodern cultural form; it is now important to understand how and by what means they have taken root within this territory.

The transmodern approach: the establishment of a knowledge economy

The transmodern cultural form, which is emerging in the region, is rooted in a knowledge economy (Corneloup and Mao, 2010). Since innovation is key to its development, we will demonstrate how these actors adopt a project-based approach, drawing on their knowledge, culture, experience, and imagination (Liefooghe, 2014). Four key elements emerged during this study.

The first point to highlight is collective cognitive learning (Argyiris and Schön, 1978), which facilitates the innovation process at the PNC. The presence of a rich and diverse network of organizations, the organization of numerous events, and the wide range of tourism offerings are tangible indicators of the region’s dynamism. The complete autonomy of one of the service providers and the spotlight placed on local products at certain events reveal the strength of this region and foster a sense of stability and independence from the current capitalist system. Finally, we observed that stakeholders in the PNC are striving to overcome the constraints associated with preserving the biodiversity of their land in order to maintain an active region. The innovative concepts^mentioned2 thus attest to a region in motion and the maintenance of an evolutionary process (Mathevet et al., 2010), preserving the region’s future potential. We have therefore compared the Cévennes region with Corrado’s (2010) observations on the factors fostering social innovation: having a dynamic, independent, and evolving territory. It is clear that the Cévennes align with these assertions.

The second key aspect of how this knowledge economy operates lies in the expertise of individuals contracted by the PNC. These individuals, working alongside local elected officials who can leverage their influence and local standing, draw on their practical experience and theoretical knowledge to foster a proactive dynamic within the region, which ultimately facilitates the acceptance of various innovations (Bourdeau, 2009). This knowledge is evident, for example, in the “starry sky” certification recently obtained following a modification of the public lighting system. In reality, it is not innovative to rethink and reduce public lighting during off-peak hours at night in order to save money. However, the innovation lies in the way this lighting is redesigned to allow people to appreciate the full beauty of the starry sky while avoiding disturbance to crepuscular species. This idea also generates tourism activity because it offers a new angle of appeal for the region. We see the same scenario at the Prat Peyrot ski resort. Indeed, this small resort, equipped

relying solely on ski lifts, was becoming a vulnerable area due to its lack of appeal when compared to other French ski resorts. However, just as Fourny (1996) demonstrated in the mid-Alpine region, stakeholders in the PNC recognized a certain potential to be unlocked thanks to the area’s well-preserved environment. That is why the PNC delegated the management of this resort to a private operator so that it could invest in the area and restore its appeal through a functional transformation—that is, revitalizing the resort from a more ecological perspective and offering activities year-round. Thus, it can be said that new services are now being offered.

“ The idea is to involve the local community in the planning process to develop a strategy that is, of course, compatible with the national park and its regulatory requirements, but above all, one that is unique and effective in attracting visitors from the surrounding area: Montpellier, …”

Xavier, PNC executive

Indeed, a functional transformation (Mangematin and Thuderoz, 2004) introduces new services that can bring about more or less profound and lasting changes in behavior, while also generating positive impacts for the region. Through these initiatives, we come to understand that the knowledge in question is one of the keys to this innovative region and that it helps to reveal the region’s potential and strengths.

The third element directly concerns the organization of the PNC, whose project-based approach could be described as transmodern. Indeed, this organization is governed by a horizontal governance model (Gerbaux and Marcelpoil, 2006). This model is defined by the consensus and agreements established among the various stakeholders to ensure that regulations or decisions are adopted. In this context, a process of reflexivity (Giddens, 1994) takes hold, as local actors incorporate diverse opinions into their deliberations to find the best solution. Indeed, greater authority is granted to^{stakeholders³} in defining the projects to be implemented (Deldèvre and Hérat, 2012), which also strengthens their sense of belonging. Those involved are thus mobilized toward territorial constructivism (Corneloup and Mao, 2010), which limits overarching public policies and facilitates personal initiatives (community, entrepreneurial, and individual actions). Within the PNC, this governance operates through eight different thematic committees (tourism, cultural heritage, biodiversity, etc.) bringing together

52 members to discuss and reach agreements deemed “acceptable” to all stakeholders (Corneloup, 2011):

“For example, we have a tourism commission that includes local elected officials and managers. I’m thinking of nature project managers, tourism offices, and accommodation providers—basically, people like that, about twenty of them who meet regularly to shape the organization’s policies.”

Xavier, PNC executive

In the same vein, we can highlight the initiative by the Pays Viganais Community of Municipalities (CCPV), which commissioned students in the Master’s 2 program in Sports Tourism Management (University of Montpellier) to conduct a feasibility study^*. We note that, despite the CCPV’s “traditional” organizational structure, several innovative events have been organized in line with the identified values. A survey was therefore conducted among residents.

This initiative is based on the principles of horizontal governance, opening up the discussion to residents, empowering them, and fostering a sense of belonging.

The final element reflects the strong policy of inclusion of the peripheral zone within the core area of the PNC, particularly with regard to initiatives promoting sustainable development and fostering collective intelligence. A simple example from the tourism sector can be cited. The Cévennes Eco-Tourism Association, which brings together all service providers who have signed the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism, has approximately sixty members. More than half of the members are located outside the core ^{park area**} and are therefore not subject to the strict regulatory framework, which means they are taking a personal initiative to join a collective that defends shared and sustainable values. Ecological solidarity (Mathevet et al., 2010) as well as collective intelligence are thus established through this association. In this regard, the PNC public agency provides logistical and some financial support to the association to increase its visibility and facilitate its activities, which represents an opportunity to be seized upon joining. Indeed, the “win-win” principle mentioned by Lahaye (2009) remains relevant today. If tourism service providers are environmentally conscious and commit through this association to adhering to the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism, then they will receive support for their projects. They will thus be able to rely on the members of this organization (including the PNC) and will, in a sense, be fully integrated into the regional dynamic. On the other hand, the PNC recruits new members, and all these members then act as facilitators promoting the National Park’s sustainable policy. Furthermore, this solidarity and collective intelligence can also be reflected in the informal relationships between stakeholders. Indeed, these small arrangements are put in place for the benefit of everyone, but above all for the benefit of the region:

“As for me, someone who walks by here on Sundays, on the street, when the tourist office is closed, well, I can give people maps of Le Vigan so they know what’s in town. And that’s separate from promoting an activity. […] [Then] when it comes to directing people who want to go biking. In a way, the tourist offices are working for us.”

Olivier, the tour operator offering bike tours

Through these four elements, it is clear that the establishment of this knowledge economy has enabled the residents of the PNC to harness their intangible (and infinite) resources in the service of a transmodern project. These resources—which consist of their intelligence and inventiveness (Liefooghe, 2014)—are efficiently utilized through innovation to serve their community. These resources can take the form of actions such as reducing public lighting, or organizational structures such as the establishment of horizontal governance, and they enable the maintenance of the territorial evolutionary process (Mathevet et al., 2010). Despite this, we have observed a two-speed dynamic between the PNC and local authorities. Indeed, the PNC’s very strict regulatory framework limits the initiatives taken by local actors to revitalize the region, which generates some conflicts. In practice, local actors do not always understand why they are denied certain avenues or activities. Frustrations then arise, which can ultimately undermine the proper functioning of the solidarity mentioned above.

Conclusion

This study has helped us understand the complexity of protecting biodiversity in a predominantly forested rural area that is also inhabited, given that other factors come into play, such as its dynamics or its development for tourism. Above all, it has helped us understand how sports tourism activities can reflect the predominance of a particular cultural form. Indeed, we observed the emergence in the region of a third generation of sports professionals, bringing with them the codes of an underlying culture. Sports technicians (1st generation) and sports service marketers (2nd generation) are now being replaced by recreational eco-developers (Corneloup et al., 2006). It is clear that this new wave is the result of the transmodern movement taking place within the PNC region. Moreover, if we revisit Luyckx’s (1999) concept, which defines transmodernity as a five-tiered iceberg, we observe a region fully aligned with this culture. Indeed, if we focus on the first level—the lowest tier of the iceberg—described as humanity, which, refusing to abandon all hope for future life, unconsciously shifts its mindset to counter this phenomenon of destruction, which can be represented by the excesses of the capitalist system. In this case, we have been able to demonstrate that the Cévennes population has indeed adopted a sustainable lifestyle through the production of natural products or, indeed, the operation of an eco-sports and organic-living chain. Regarding the second level, Luyckx describes the abandonment of patriarchal society, with its pillars of power, control, and conquest. We can take the example of Anne Legile, the current director of the PNC, to confirm the recognition of women’s roles. The third level, meanwhile, highlights the transition from a modern and postmodern society centered on objects to a transmodernity that gives more space to nature. The cultural blending and transcultural nature of outdoor sports are clear evidence of this ongoing transition. Next, the fourth level is described as the shift from a capitalist economy to a green economy. However, more than just a green economy, our field analysis revealed a transformation toward a knowledge economy that promotes innovation and cooperation in the service of a sustainable lifestyle.

Finally, the fifth level, corresponding to the tip of the iceberg, reflects a loss of credibility in the “traditional” political system. Thus, as we explained in Part Two, it is a form of horizontal governance that governs the establishment of the PNC. This may represent the innovative solution society is seeking, as it suggests greater citizen involvement in the decision-making process. Consequently, based on all these elements, it is clear that the PNC’s stakeholders have chosen transmodernity, and that this choice is not random but rather an expression of values rooted in environmentalism, recreation, and solidarity.

Finally, regarding the few conflicts arising from the enforcement of National Park regulations, we suggest that the PNC make an additional educational effort to foster public acceptance of the restrictions. According to Arnaud and Naulleau (2015), three “best practices” can be recommended. The first involves explaining that there are no other alternatives; the second involves viewing residents as assets rather than costs; and the third presents the project as a long-term initiative, allowing stakeholders to visualize their future role.

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* The purpose of this study was to understand the characteristics of the population of Vigana in order to propose.

** http://www.cevennes-ecotourisme.com